This species is very common in shallow and intertidal waters over soft substrates mostly to 30 m, but occasionally 40 m (K.V. Akhilesh pers. comm. 05/02/2017). It is a very small species, only growing to 32 cm disc width (DW). Data from the H. imbricata form show that males mature about 18 cm DW and females by at least 23 cm DW (Moore et al. 2012). It is born at 7-10 cm DW (Last et al. 2016). No data on litter size is available, but given the small size, it is likely to be low. Similarly, no data on frequency of breeding or on ageing are available. Generation length is estimated from the similar-sized Speckled Maskray (Neotrygon picta) from Australia that matures at 3-4 years and reaches a maximum age of 18 years, yielding a generation length of ~11 years (Jacobsen and Bennett 2010).

The Cowtail Ray is benthic in coastal habitats and occurs over soft substrates, often near coral reefs (Last et al. 2016) to depths of 60 m. Maximum size and biology is poorly known due to confusion amongst Pastinachus spp. This species reaches at least 89 cm disc width (Last et al. 2016). Generation length is estimated at 20 years based on age data from Maculabatis astra (Jacobsen 2007).

The Broad Cowtail Ray is benthic in coastal habitats. Maximum size and biology is poorly known due to confusion amongst other cowtail rays. Reaches ~200 cm disc width (Last et al. 2016). Generation length is estimated at 20 years based on age data from Maculabatis astra (Jacobsen 2007).

This species is an inshore ray, usually found on sandy bottoms down to at least 90 m deep (Manjaji 2004, White et al. 2006, Last et al. 2016). It attains a maximum size of at least 150 cm disc width (DW) (~300 cm total length) (White et al. 2006, Last et al. 2016). Males mature at about 75-85 cm DW and size at birth is around 23 cm DW (White and Dharmadi 2007). Reproduction is viviparous with histotrophy (White et al. 2006). As there is no information on this species' maximum age and age at maturity, generation length was inferred as ~20 years based on data for Blackspotted Whipray (Maculabatis astra) (Jacobsen and Bennett 2011). However, it is noted that the Blackspotted Whipray grows to a much smaller maximum size (80 cm DW) than Jenkins' Whipray (150 cm DW).

The Pink Whipray is found on soft sandy bottoms and coral rubble on the inner continental shelf from the intertidal zone to 70 m depth (Last et al. 2016). The species attains a maximum size of at least 146 cm DW (disc width) with males maturing at around 112 cm disc width (DW) (Last et al. 2016). Size at maturity for females is unknown, but reproduction is viviparous with histotrophy (White et al. 2006). Little else is known of its biology. As there is no information on this species' maximum age and age at maturity, generation length was inferred as ~20 years based on data for Blackspotted Whipray (Maculabatis astra) (Jacobsen and Bennett 2011). However, it is noted that the Blackspotted Whipray grows to a much smaller maximum size (80 cm DW) than the Pink Whipray (146 cm DW).

Very little information is currently available on the habitat or biology of this guitarfish. It occurs from close inshore out to about 90 m deep and presumably occurs over soft substrates. Maximum total length is reported at approximately 87 cm (R.W. Jabado pers. obs.). Maturity for males is about 50-68 cm TL and for females it is around 60 cm TL (Raje 2006, Henderson et al. 2004, Last et al. 2016). Size at birth is about 19-20 cm TL. Fecundity is up to 3-20 pups (M. Khan pers. comm. 08/02/2016, Raje 2006) although females dissected from landings in Oman had between 3-5 pups (Henderson et al. 2004). Most pregnant and post-partum females in Indian and Pakistan waters occur in September and October (M. Khan pers. comm. 08/02/2016, Raje 2006) and in the summer and winter in Oman (Henderson et al. 2004). Generation length is inferred to be 5 years from the Lesser Guitarfish (Acroteriobatus annulatus) from southern Africa (Compagno et al. 1989).

This species inhabits the inshore continental shelf to depths of 70 m on soft substrates (Weigmann 2016). Reproduction is viviparous and the species reaches at least 90 cm total length (TL) (Weigmann 2016). Maximum litter size is up to at least seven and size at birth is ~25 cm TL (A.C. Henderson unpubl. data). Data from Oman indicates that females taken during autumn off Muscat were all mature at less than 77 cm TL while males matured at less than 71 cm TL (Henderson et al. 2004). Generation length is inferred to be 5 years from the Lesser Guitarfish (Acroteriobatus annulatus) from southern Africa (Compagno et al. 1989).

The Shortfin Devil Ray is an uncommon inshore, primarily shelf pelagic species found in continental coastal areas but not extending into the epipelagic zone (Compagno and Last 1999). This species reaches a maximum size of about 119 cm disc width (DW) (White et al. 2006b). Males mature at 103-“119 cm (DW) (White et al. 2006b, Notarbartolo di Sciara et al. 2017) and size at birth is around 31 cm DW (Compagno and Last 1999). As with all Myliobatiformes, the reproductive mode of M. kuhlii is livebearing and histotrophic, with embryonic nutrition supplied from a protein- and lipid-rich histotroph from highly developed trophonemata. A single, relatively large pup is produced per litter (Compagno and Last 1999, White et al. 2006b). Intrinsically, Manta and Mobula rays have among the lowest productivity of any chondrichthyan (Pardo et al. 2016). Long resting periods may account for extended reproductive cycles in mobulid species. As there are not enough data to estimate an exact generation length for this species, an approximate, suspected generation length is used. A midway point of 7.5 years between a very conservative low of five years, and the larger Spinetail Devil Ray's 10-year generation length is suspected to be the approximate generation length for the Shortfin Devil Ray until more accurate information becomes available (Cuevas-Zimbron et al. 2013).

The Arabian Carpetshark occurs in coastal waters in coral reefs, lagoons, rocky shores, muddy bottoms and mangrove estuaries from 2-100 m. This shark is less than 10 cm total length (TL) at birth, but grows to a maximum length of 80 cm TL (Weigmann 2016). Females mature at 52 cm TL and males at about 55 cm TL (Moore and Peirce 2013). The species is oviparous, with single egg cases developing in each uterus. It appears to be closely associated with coral reefs. Age data are not available, but generation length is estimated as 9 years using data from the similar-sized White-spotted Bambooshark (C. plagiosum) (Chen et al. 2007).

This species is frequently a dominant species of back reef margins, lagoons and some fringing reefs, and generally can be found to depths of 30 m. It is one of the predominant framework builders, sometimes building monospecific reef frameworks or contributing to pocilloporid reef building (Glynn 2001). It is a relatively slow-growing species with reported growth rates of 8.4 mm/year in Costa Rica and 8.1 mm/year in the Galápagos; however, it can grow as fast as 14 to 19 mm/year during the first few years (Guzmán and Cortes 1993, Cortés and Guzmán 1998, Guzmán and Cortés 1989). This species utilizes a gonochoristic reproductive strategy (except from Caño Island, Costa Rica), and is presumably a broadcaster spawner (Glynn et al. 1994). Glynn et al. (1994) suggested that eastern Pacific populations appeared to be reproductively active over multiple annual intervals, including periods of relatively low temperature. According to Glynn et al. (1994), fecundity can vary between regions; P. lobata has higher fecundities at Caño Island, Costa Rica, and Uva Island, Panama, than in the Galápagos Islands, where water temperatures are lower and more seasonally variable. Moreover, Glynn et al. (1994) suggest that P. lobata reproduces twice per year in thermally high and stable environments. Fecundity of this coral appears to benefit from moderate sea warming events, but may decline dramatically during unusually strong thermal anomalies (Glynn et al. 1994). After 1983, observations of sexual recruitment have been rare to infrequent in the eastern Pacific; however sexual recruitment has been observed in some areas of the Galápagos Islands (Glynn et al. 1994). The almost complete absence of sexual recruitment for this species in the eastern Pacific may be due to high larval mortality in the water column; as well as increased levels of competition with benthic alga, and increased densities of grazers and bioeroders following the 1982-83 El Niño event (Glynn et al. 1994).Porites lobata can also reproduce asexually by fragmentation (Guzmán and Cortés 1989, Cortés and Guzmán 1998, Cortés and Jiménez 2003). In the eastern Pacific the incidental feeding activities of the triggerfish Pseudobalistes naufragium can generate fragments that survive to form new colonies (Guzmán and Cortés 1989, Cortés and Guzmán 1998, Glynn et al. 1994). This form of fragmentation is common in Costa Rica and Panama, but uncommon in the Galápagos Islands (Glynn et al. 1994). Fragmentation also occurs by initial weakening of colonies by bioeroders; P. lobata colonies possess high densities of boring bivalves (Lithophaga spp.), which erode the skeletal structure, a process that can also lead to fragmentation (Cortés and Jiménez 2003, Glynn et al. 1994).At least eight fish species feed on live corals, with their feeding strategies ranging from removing mainly live tissue and causing little damage to the skeleton, to abrading or breaking apart colonies in the feeding process, such as during feeding of Arothron meleagris and Pseudobalistes naufragium (Guzmán and Cortes 1989, Glynn 2001). It is commonly grazed by the puffer Arothron meleagris (Guzmán and Robertson 1989, Glynn et al. 1994).The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Therefore, any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years.