MZANAC - MZANAC20261 | Panthera leo

Assessment ID

MZANAC20261

Taxon name

Panthera leo

Linnaeus 1758

Infrarank

Panthera leo melanchaita

Infrarank Taxonomic Authority

Smith 1842

Uploaded by

Administração Nacional das Áreas de Conservação (ANAC) and IUCN SSC Cat Specialist Group’s African Lion Database

Taxonomic information

Scientific name

Panthera leo

Linnaeus 1758

Common name(s)

Lion

Assessed taxon level

Population

Infrarank

Panthera leo melanchaita

Infrarank Taxonomic Authority

Smith 1842

Higher level taxonomic groupings

Vertebrates

Mammals

Kingdom

Animalia

Phylum

chordata

Class

mammalia

Order

carnivora

Family

felidae

Genus

Panthera

Species

leo

Species authority

Linnaeus 1758

Taxonomic notes and synonyms listed

Taxonomy currently used by the IUCN SSC Cat Specialist Group (see Kitchener et al. 2017): Panthera leo leo—Central Africa, West Africa and Asia; Panthera leo melanochaita—Southern and East Africa. Lions were previously described as two subspecies: the African Lion (Panthera leo leo) and the Asiatic Lion (Panthera leo persica). However, this has subsequently changed. Recent studies (Bertola et al. 2015, 2016, 2022a) indicate that Lions in Western and Central Africa are more closely related to Lions found in India than they are to those found in Southern and East Africa. This is likely the result of Lions being reduced to local refugia during the more recent part of the Pleistocene climatic cycles (Bertola et al. 2011, 2016). Divergence times estimated from genetic data match large-scale changes in habitat, including expansion and contraction of forested areas, possibly reducing connectivity and isolating Lion subpopulations (Bertola et al. 2016). This temporary isolation may have led to divergence of subpopulations, which can still be observed today. Historical connectivity Lion subpopulations in West or Central Africa and subpopulations in India explain the close evolutionary relationships between these subpopulations, even though a series of bottlenecks have led the Indian subpopulation to differentiate quickly as a result of increased genetic drift (Bertola et al. 2015, 2016). Based on recent genetic studies, the two subspecies of Lions overlap in a contact zone in Ethiopia which possibly extends into Sudan and South Sudan, while a second contact zone of overlap occurs across Zambia, Malawi and Mozambique (Bertola et al. 2015, 2016, 2022a, 2022b).

Felis leo

Location and scope

Scope (of the Assessment)

National

Countries included within the scope of the assessment

Mozambique

Country ISO code(s)

Does the assessment cover a marine EEZ area(s)?

Not assigned

Conservation Status

Assessed as

Vulnerable

Abbreviated status

Qualifying criteria (if given)

C2a(i)

Criteria system used

IUCN

(see Assessment details)

Assessment rationale/justification

The Lion is assessed as Vulnerable under criterion C2a(i) based on the population in Mozambique consisting of fewer than 10,000 mature individuals, and the number of mature individuals in each subpopulation being lower than 1,000. For this assessment, the population within Mozambique was estimated to include approximately 1,290–1,475 adult and subadult individuals (African Lion Database, unpub. data 2025). This classification is further substantiated by population declines and extirpations within the last 21 years (equivalent to approximately three Lion generations). Notably, Lions have been extirpated from Quirimbas National Park, and major reductions have been recorded within Limpopo National Park, with Lions declining by 66% between 2012 and 2017 (Everatt et al. 2019). Despite Lions in Niassa Special Reserve demonstrating a 40% population increase between 2005 and 2015 (Begg et al. 2018), a 13.5% decline has been observed within the last six years which is concerning given that it supports 54–67% of the national Lion population (Almeida et al. 2025). The estimated population within the assessment area exceeded the threshold for classification as Vulnerable under criterion D, while area of occupancy, and extent of occurrence estimates exceeded the threshold for threatened categories under criterion B. Data limitations precluded a robust assessment under criterion A, largely due to a lack of survey-derived, long-term population estimates, whilst criterion E was not applied due to a lack of quantitative analysis of Lion extinction risk in the country. Extant Lion range in the assessment region has declined over the past two decades, contracting from 208,121 km2 in 2004 to 149,876 km2 in 2025. This represents a 28% reduction in range over a period of 21 years. The primary drivers of this contraction are associated with land-use change, including the expansion of commercial agricultural production, shifting cultivation practices, livestock farming, and broader processes of rural and urban development. These pressures have contributed to habitat loss and fragmentation both within and beyond the boundaries of protected areas, further threatening the viability of remaining Lion populations. Similar to the species global assessment, the classification of Lions in Mozambique represents a regional dichotomy. Subpopulations in the northern and southern regions of the country are undergoing notable declines, while in contrast, the central region is experiencing a population increase. These gains are attributed to the natural recovery in Gorongosa National Park, and active reintroduction initiatives in Coutada 9 and the Zambezi Delta (Almeida et al. 2025). Such increases highlight the measurable recovery potential of Mozambican Lion subpopulations, which could be formally quantified using frameworksa such as the IUCN Green Status of Species (Akçakaya et al. 2018). Nevertheless, all subpopulations occur well below estimated ecological carrying capacity levels (Almeida et al. 2025; Everatt et al. 2014), recognizing that such estimates are typically based on static models and may not fully capture dynamic, socially-mediated, and context dependent process that influence Lion populations in human-modified landscapes (Sayre 2008). Importantly, landscape-level connectivity among several subpopulations remains possible, primarily due to the open (unfenced) nature of most conservation areas, and is supported by some evidence of Lion dispersal (Zambeze Delta Conservation, Unpublished Data. 2025), although current data is insufficient to classify any of these subpopulations as populations based on IUCN definitions. However, the extent and functional integrity of these corridors are increasingly threatened by the expansion and intensification of anthropogenic pressures. Mozambican Lion subpopulations may also contribute to broader regional dynamics within transboundary conservation landscapes, such as the Greater Limpopo Transfrontier Conservation Area and the Niassa-Selous Transfrontier Conservation Area. In line with Step 3 of the IUCN Regional and National Guidelines, we evaluated whether Mozambique’s Lion subpopulations are self-sustaining or rely on immigration from outside the country. The majority of subpopulations, including Coutadas 9/13, Gorongosa National Park, Niassa Special Reserve/Chipanje Chetu Community Programme, Tchuma Tchato Community Programme, and Zambezi Delta, are sufficiently large and capable of sustaining themselves independently, with limited evidence of immigration from external sources. Only the Limpopo National Park/Greater Lebombo Conservancy subpopulation experiences meaningful demographic (and possibly genetic) exchange with Kruger National Park in South Africa (Almeida et al. 2025), while smaller peripheral subpopulations, such as Banhine and Zinave National Parks, remain isolated with uncertain long-term viability. Accordingly, considering Step 3, there is no change from Step 2, and the preliminary national extinction risk classification remains unchanged. Lion subpopulations across Mozambique are increasingly imperiled by ever-growing and complex human threats, and many subpopulations now experience unsustainable levels of offtake (Almeida et al. 2025). Among the most pressing threats are bycatch snaring and the targeted killing of Lions, both of which have demonstrated a marked increase in frequency and spatial extent in recent years (Almeida et al. 2025; African Lion Database, Unpublished Data. 2025). Of particular concern is the targeted killing for the emergent trade in Lion bones and body parts, which poses a considerable risk to remaining subpopulations. Documented evidence of this illegal trade in Mozambique (Almeida et al. 2025; Everatt et al. 2019) underscores its role in the precipitous decline of Lions in conservation areas such as Limpopo and Banhine National Parks. Widespread habitat loss and conversion, together with encroachment of human settlements and livestock into several conservation areas, represents another substantial threat to the species (Briers-Louw et al. 2024a; Everatt et al. 2014; Lindsey and Bento 2012). Indiscriminate retaliatory killing, often carried out in defense of human life or livestock, along with unsustainable sport hunting, contribute additional pressures to Lion subpopulations, particularly at local scales (Almeida et al. 2025; Everatt et al. 2019; Niassa Carnivore Programme, 2023). The conservation of Lions in Mozambique presents complex and multifaceted challenges. The country experiences some of the highest documented levels of anthropogenic Lion mortality, raising serious concerns about the long-term viability of the species (Almeida et al. 2025; Coals et al. 2020; Everatt et al. 2019). While there are many factors that predispose the country to these elevated offtake rates, a critical underlying issue is the chronic underfunding of conservation areas, which limits the capacity to address these human-induced threats (Almeida et al. 2025). Despite these considerable challenges, the recovery of Lions in Mozambique remains feasible, contingent upon strategic and active conservation interventions. Central to these efforts is effective protected area management, which necessitates securing enhanced financial resources and ensuring their strategic allocation toward initiatives that directly support lion conservation. Priority actions should include strengthening anti-poaching efforts, reducing snaring, disrupting illegal wildlife trade networks, and mitigating human-lion conflict. Equally important is the active engagement with and support of local communities, whose participation is fundamental to the success of long-term conservation strategies. In the national context, Gorongosa National Park stands out as the only conservation area currently meeting the recommended funding thresholds (Lindsey et al. 2018; Pringle 2017), and represents the only Lion subpopulation which is projected to reach estimated carrying capacity by 2040 (Almeida et al. 2025; but see Sayre 2008 on the limitations of such static thresholds). Successful reintroductions in central Mozambique have led to localized population increases, indicating that such strategies could be replicated in other regions to restore Lions to key landscapes across their former range. The management of these populations can draw lessons from the South African model for small, fenced reserves that mimic natural processes through several intervention strategies (Miller et al. 2013). However, these conservation areas are large, with evidence of dispersal and gene flow between landscapes (Zambeze Delta Conservation unpubl. data), and such self-regulating dynamics which should be prioritized where possible (Creel et al. 2013). These areas may thus currently have the capacity to support self-sustaining populations, although mounting human pressures may increasingly restrict these processes, which would make elements of the South African approach increasingly relevant in future. Finally, the implementation of standardized, long-term monitoring frameworks is essential for evaluating the efficacy of conservation measures and adaptive management approaches. Coordinated national efforts to track lion populations and associated threats will be instrumental in safeguarding the future of the species in Mozambique. While the Lion has been relatively well-studied in certain parts of the country, notable knowledge gaps persist in understudied areas such as the Tete province and hunting areas surrounding Niassa Special Reserve. The estimates presented in this assessment are based on the most current and reliable data and methodologies, yet they are accompanied by a degree of uncertainty, which arises partly from the use of different methods. Such uncertainty is a well-recognized challenge in the evaluation of long-lived species, especially when assessing trends over extended periods, encompassing historical timeframes when certain survey techniques were unavailable, or future periods that are inherently difficult to predict. Despite these limitations, the current estimates provide a critical foundation to guide ongoing conservation planning and pragmatic adaptive management efforts.

In light of the persistent and escalating threats facing Lion subpopulations across Mozambique, it is recommended that the species be designated as a priority for ongoing observation. Continuous monitoring of its conservation and population status is essential to detect emerging trends and respond to threats in a timely and evidence-based manner. A comprehensive national reassessment of species status should be undertaken every five years or sooner should new data or significant changes emerge.

Assessment details

Year assessed

2025

Assessors/contributors/reviewers listed

Willem Briers-Louw, João Almeida, Agostinho Jorge, Colleen Begg, Vincent Naude, Samantha Nicholson, Eugenio Manhiça

Criteria system used

IUCN

Reference for methods given

IUCN (2001,2012) IUCN Red List Categories and Criteria: Version 3.1. IUCN Species Survival Commission. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, U.K. ii + 30pp. + IUCN. (2012). Guidelines for Application of IUCN Red List Criteria at Regional and National Levels: Version 4.0. Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK: IUCN. iii + 41pp.

Further information

Endemism (according to assessment)

Endemic to region

Taxon distribution as listed in assessment

Lions were once widely distributed across Mozambique, with few areas entirely devoid of their presence. Although historic records of Lions in Mozambique date back to the 19th and 20th centuries (Livingstone 1857; Maugham 1906), these accounts are scarce and largely anecdotal. The most comprehensive and reliable source on historical distribution of Lions in Mozambique is the Checklist and Atlas of Mammals in Mozambique by Smithers and Tello (1976). However, from the 1950s onward, there was a gradual reduction in Lion distribution, largely attributed to the colonial government’s prioritization of agricultural and livestock production, which led to extensive wildlife eradication operations (Soto 2009). Mozambique’s post-colonial period was marked by a liberation struggle (1964–1974), followed by a brief period of stability, but the ensuing and protracted civil war (1977–1992) precipitated further loss of Lion habitat, leading to increasing confinement to conservation areas (Fusari et al. 2010). Current extant Lion range in Mozambique encompasses a substantial but greatly diminished portion of their historical distribution. The species now occupies only approximately 149,876 km2, reflecting a 28% range decline over the last 21 years (three lion generations), from a previous estimate of 208,121 km2. Lions are almost exclusively found in large, open (unfenced) conservation landscapes in Mozambique, with some smaller subpopulations occurring in national parks and fenced game reserves and farms. Within the regional context, some Lion subpopulations are assumed to benefit from transboundary conservation landscapes such as Niassa Special Reserve/Chipanje Chetu (as part of the Niassa-Selous Transfrontier Conservation Area), and Tchuma Tchato Community Programme (as part of a broader conservation landscape including Zambia and Zimbabwe; Jacobson et al. 2013). However, while dispersal across international boundaries remains a possibility, there is little direct evidence that immigration plays a significant role in supporting most Mozambican subpopulations. The only exception being Limpopo National Park (and Greater Lebombo Conservancy), where forward simulation modelling demonstrates that immigration from Kruger National Park in South Africa (within the Greater Limpopo Transfrontier Conservation Area) is critical to prevent the extirpation of this subpopulation (Almeida et al. 2025). Outside formal conservation areas and private reserves, transient Lions occur sporadically, although such individuals are frequently involved in conflict with humans (Dunham et al. 2010), often necessitating active management through translocation or euthanasia by the statutory authorities. Lions in Mozambique are supported by nine formally recognized conservation areas – Banhine National Park, Chipanje Chetu Community Programme, Coutadas 9/13, Gorongosa National Park, Limpopo National Park, Niassa Special Reserve, Tchuma Tchato Community Programme, Zambezi Delta, and Zinave National Park – as well as three privately managed reserves/game farms, namely the Greater Lebombo Conservancy, Mahimba Game Farm, and Muanza Game Farm. The most notable stronghold occurs in Niassa Special Reserve in the northern region, covering around 42,000 km2, and harbouring the largest subpopulation area (28%). Lions also occur to the west of Niassa in Chipanje Chetu Community Conservation Area and the Coutadas surrounding the reserve. In the central region, Lions occur in Gorongosa National Park and the Tchuma Tchato Community Programme. The Marromeu Complex (i.e., the southern half of the Zambezi Delta) and Coutadas 9/13 represent reclaimed Lion range following their post-war functional extirpation and subsequent reintroduction. Lions also occur in two private hunting concessions near the Marromeu Complex: Mahimba and Muanza Game Farms (G. Taylor, Pers Comm. 2023; African Lion Database, Unpublished Data. 2025). Lions occur in the Mozambican portion of the Greater Limpopo Transfrontier Conservation Area in the southern region, albeit relatively sparsely, and are largely represented by the Limpopo National Park and Greater Lebombo Conservancy (comprising Incomati Conservancy, Karingani Game Reserve, Massintonto Conservancy, and Sabie Game Park). Lions are extant in Banhine National Park (albeit occasional dispersers) and have naturally re-colonized Zinave National Park. Due to intense anthropogenic pressure and human-lion conflict, Lions have been extirpated in parts of Mozambique. Lions were last seen in Quirimbas National Park in 2009 where lions were seen near Nguia village (S. Nazerali, Pers Comm. 2021; African Lion Database, Unpublished Data, 2025). Lions were similarly extirpated in Gilé National Park almost two decades ago due to unsustainable levels of poaching (T. Prin, Pers Comm, 2019). However, occasional dispersers have been recorded in Gilé in recent years. It is unsure when lions disappeared from Coutada 5, but there are sporadic records of transient Lions in this area. Lions in the Marromeu-Coutada Complex (comprising of Coutadas 10, 11, 12, 14, and the Marromeu National Reserve) became functionally extirpated with only transient males being recorded up until a reintroduction of 24 Lions in 2018. Lions also previously occurred in Mágoè National Park in the Tete Province but are now also presumed to be extirpated. Lions disappeared from Zinave National Park more than a decade ago but in 2021, a male Lion became resident and small groups of males have since occupied the Zinave Sanctuary (O. Abrao, Pers Comm. 2024).

Population trends as listed in assessment

Lion populations have precipitously declined by an estimated ~75% over the last five decades across the African continent, from 92,054 individuals (95% CI: 83,017–101,094; Loveridge et al. 2022) to 22,000–25,000 individuals (Nicholson et al. 2025a). Over the past 21 years (equivalent to three Lion generations), Nicholson et al. (2025a) inferred a 36% reduction in Lion populations between 2002 and 2023. Furthermore, the recent global assessment illustrated that Lions in Africa have an estimated 41% probability of declining by one third (33%) within the next three Lion generations (Nicholson et al. 2025a). A dichotomous state of African Lions is exemplified by Mozambique, where key populations are declining, particularly in the southern and northern regions, while restoration and reintroduction efforts are driving population recoveries and growth in the central region. There are an estimated 1,290–1,475 free-roaming Lions in Mozambican conservation areas, supporting 5–7% of the African Lion population (22,000–25,000 adult and subadult Lions; Bauer et al. 2018, African Lion Database, unpub. data 2023) and thus the 7th largest global stronghold for the species (Almeida et al. 2025). In this assessment, ‘population size’ refers to the total number of mature Lions estimated to occur within Mozambique. Within this national population, we identify ten distinct ‘subpopulations’, defined as groups largely restricted to particular areas where demographic exchange is limited. In northern Mozambique, Niassa Special Reserve and Chipanje Chetu Community Programme are considered a distinct subpopulation since they are adjacent to one another, while relatively isolated from other areas in Mozambique. Centrally, Lions in Coutadas 9/13, Gorongosa National Park, Mahimba and Muanza Game Farms, Tchuma Tchato Community Programme, and Zambezi Delta are all recognised as separate subpopulations, as current Lion movement among these areas is minimal and unlikely to influence demographic dynamics. In the south, Lions in Limpopo National Park and the Greater Lebombo Conservancy are functionally connected with Kruger National Park and are thus considered as a single subpopulation, whereas Zinave and Banhine National Parks are more peripheral and regarded as small, separate subpopulations of uncertain long-term viability. In the northern region, Niassa Special Reserve supports the largest Lion subpopulation in the country. Lion densities in Niassa range from 1 to 2.97 Lions/100 km2, with higher densities observed in areas with greater management, anti-poaching coverage and community engagement (Niassa Carnivore Programme, 2023). Given this variability in management effectiveness, zone-specific density estimates offer more accurate and nuanced insights than a single extrapolated population estimate across such a vast landscape. While legal sport hunting of Lions occurs in parts of Niassa, effective implementation of age restrictions between 2005 and 2015 resulted in relatively low demographic impacts on this subpopulation, with evidence of population growth during the same period, increasing from an estimated 693 individuals (95% CI: 577–810) to 973 individuals (95% CI: 842–1,104), based on call-up surveys (Begg et al. 2018). However, this subpopulation has exhibited a declining trend since 2012 due to increasing illegal anthropogenic mortality which is likely driving unsustainable offtake from this subpopulation (Almeida et al. 2025; Niassa Carnivore Programme, 2023). In 2018, the Niassa Special Reserve subpopulation was estimated at 932 (95% CI: 810–1,054) adult and subadult Lions, but by 2023, the subpopulation dropped to 806 (95% CI: 752–860) adult and subadult Lions, raising concerns over the steady decline of Lions in this significant conservation area (Almeida et al. 2025; Niassa Carnivore Programme, 2023). Once again, we highlight the inherent limitation of producing reliable population estimates across such large and heterogeneous landscapes, and thus emphasize that the total population estimate for Niassa should be used with caution (C. Begg, Pers Comm. 2025). Based on resource carrying capacity predictions, it is estimated that this Lion subpopulation could reasonably attain densities of 3–5 Lions/100 km2 or 1,260–2,100 Lions, indicating that Niassa is well below carrying capacity (Niassa Carnivore Programme, 2020). However, such estimates are best regarded as predictive rather than definitive, as they may not fully capture the dynamic processes of prey availability and other ecological factors that typically influence Lion population responses. Adjacent to Niassa Special Reserve, Chipanje Chetu Community Programme also supports an extant Lion population of 84 (95% CI: 62–106) individuals estimated in 2024 based on call-up surveys. Lions are possibly extant in Gilé National Park, although their isolation is likely to increase the probably of extirpation in future. Lions are extirpated in Quirimbas National Park. The central region of Mozambique, which was the epicenter of the Mozambican civil war, experienced drastic declines in wildlife, including Lions (Bouley et al. 2018; Lindsey and Bento 2012; Soto 2009). However, these subpopulations are now steadily recovering. Lions in Gorongosa National Park were previously depleted to <60 individuals at a density of 1.83 Lions/100 km2 (Chardonnet et al. 2009). However, improved law enforcement efforts and intensive monitoring, supported through a major public-private partnership (Bouley et al. 2018; Pringle 2017), have facilitated Lion recovery, with the observed Lion density estimated at approximately 7 Lions/100 km2 in 2016 (Bouley et al. 2018). As of 2025, the park supports an estimated 250 Lions based on registry data (M. Ângela, Pers Comm. 2025), although implementing recommended survey methods, such as spatial capture-recapture, would provide more robust estimates and greater confidence in these figures (Elliot and Gopalaswamy 2017; Nicholson et al. 2024). In the early to mid-2010s, Lions were considered functionally extirpated in Coutada 9 (Lindsey and Bento 2012), and the Zambezi Delta (Briers-Louw et al. 2024a), largely due to the long-term impacts of the armed conflict, and intense bushmeat poaching. However, increased management capacity and effective law enforcement have since reduced these threats to manageable levels, which resulted in dramatic prey population recoveries (Macandza et al. 2024). With more favourable conditions in these conservation areas, Lions were reintroduced into Coutada 9 (n = 10) in 2010 and Zambezi Delta (n = 24) in 2018. Both subpopulations are demonstrating positive population growth. Lions in Coutada 9 have increased from 10 reintroduced individuals to approximately 44 individuals in 2023 (Almeida et al. 2025; Lindsey and Bento 2012), while census data from the Zambezi Delta indicated a mean finite growth rate (_) of 1.36 ± 0.22 (SD) between 2018 and 2022 (i.e., the first four years post-reintroduction), corresponding to an annual population increase of 13–55% (Briers-Louw et al. 2025 in Review). A more recent spatially explicit capture-recapture survey revealed a density of 2.28 (95% highest posterior density [HPD] intervals: 1.64–2.93) Lions/100 km2, with an estimated 66 (95% HPD interval: 50–80) individuals in the Zambezi Delta (Briers-Louw et al. 2024b). As a result, there are now >100 Lions estimated between these two areas (Almeida et al. 2025; Briers-Louw et al. 2024b). These populations are relatively well monitored and managed, with occasional augmentations to increase population size and enhance genetic diversity. Lions also occur within the Tchuma Tchato Community Programme in the Tete province, both north and south of the Cahora Bassa, and while this subpopulation is potentially supported by dispersers from Zimbabwe and Zambia (Jacobson et al. 2013; Riggio et al. 2013), the magnitude and extent of immigration is poorly understood. Jacobson et al. (2013) estimated Lion population density within two-thirds of this conservation area, although the estimate was derived from historic data and indirect methodologies, which again, have yet to be formally corroborated (Almeida et al. 2025; Nicholson et al. 2024). In southern Mozambique, Lions in the Greater Limpopo Transfrontier Conservation Area are experiencing considerable anthropogenic pressures which have resulted in dramatic population reductions. These declines are well documented in the Limpopo National Park, where this subpopulation experienced a 66% decline between 2012 and 2017, with estimated densities decreasing from 0.99 Lions/100 km2 to 0.33 lions/100 km2 (Everatt et al. 2019). In 2017, Limpopo National Park's Lion population was estimated to be 22 individuals, declining from 66 in 2012 (Everatt et al. 2019). This subpopulation is largely supported by the adjacent Kruger National Park, and without its buffering effect, Lions in Limpopo National Park are predicted to become extirpated before 2040 (Almeida et al. 2025). Currently only a small, and possibly transient, population still remains in this area (Everatt et al. 2019). The Greater Lebombo Conservancy, which shares an open boundary with Kruger and Limpopo National Parks to the west, but remains fenced to the east, supports approximately 70 Lions, based on identified prides, collar tracking data, and field observations (Almeida et al. 2025). Lions in this area are ostensibly increasing due to effective protection and management. Similarly, Lions have also declined in Banhine National Park, largely due to illegal killings. In 2015, the population was small (~10 individuals) and declined to 4 individuals in 2019 (Everatt et al. 2014). Transient Lions are also occasionally reported as moving through Coutadas 4 and 5, most likely from the west, with several individuals having settled in Zinave National Park in 2021 (with six males in three groups by 2024), with recent confirmation of these individuals originating from Gonarezhou National Park (O. Abrao, Pers Comm. 2024). However, given that the park is small and fenced, the viability of this subpopulation requires active management through targeted translocations, ideally sourcing individuals from within Mozambique, or otherwise integrating into the established metapopulation framework in South Africa (Selier et al. 2024). Population trends across Mozambique’s Lion subpopulations present a dichotomous picture, yet the balance of evidence indicates a net national decline. The country’s largest subpopulation, Niassa Special Reserve, has experienced steady reductions, while Limpopo National Park has suffered pronounced losses and now largely relies on demographic reinforcement from neighbouring Kruger National Park (Almeida et al. 2025). Several smaller and peripheral subpopulations are in increasingly precarious states, showing contraction and uncertain prospects for long-term viability. Against this prevailing pattern of decline, central Mozambique has experienced notable Lion recoveries, particularly in Gorongosa National Park and the Zambezi Delta, largely attributable to improved conservation investment, management, and protection efforts. Despite this regional gain, the latest national estimate (2025) of approximately 692 mature individuals (95% CI: 516–885; see Henschel et al. 2014 for the calculation of mature individuals within a subpopulation) distributed across 10 subpopulations, reflects a diminished status relative to historic levels. Although given the contextual evidence (i.e. that some subpopulations like the Tchuma Tchato Community Programme could not be included, and that several population estimates only included subadults and adults prior to this calculation), the most plausible number of mature individuals may lie in the upper half of this range. Regardless, the overarching trajectory remains one of decline, consistent with criterion C.

Is there a map available in assessment?

To be uploaded (amendments to Nicholson, S., Bauer, H., Strampelli, P., Ikanda, D., Tumenta, P.F., Asfaw, T., Venkataraman, M. & Loveridge, A. 2025. Panthera leo. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2025: e.T15951A280792135. https://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2025-2.RLTS.T15951A280792135.en.)

Habitat and systems

Ecological system type

Terrestrial

Yes

Freshwater

Marine

Habitat

Habitat details as listed in assessment

Lions are largely found in the savanna biome (Riggio et al. 2013), but exhibit a wide habitat tolerance, and are only absent from tropical rainforests and the hyper-arid interior of the Sahara Desert (Nowell and Jackson 1996). They have been recorded at altitudes around 4,000 masl in montane habitat in East Africa (West and Packer 2013). Lions are water independent and capable of obtaining the necessary moisture for survival from their prey or even plants, but will regularly drink water when available (Green et al. 1984). Lions are largely intolerant of anthropogenically converted habitat. The most essential requirement for Lions is suitable habitat with sufficient medium to large-bodied ungulates (190–550 kg), which typically constitutes the majority of their diet (Hayward and Kerley 2005). However, Lions are opportunistic and will take a wide range of prey items from small mammals such as rodents to megaherbivores such as rhinos or elephants (Hayward and Kerley 2005). Lions are effective ambush hunters, typically selecting areas where prey are easier to catch, but will also readily engage in kleptoparasitism and scavenging from other predators. Lions are the most gregarious felids, and form cohesive familial prides consisting of related females, while both related and unrelated males form coalitions to compete for tenure over prides (West and Packer 2013). Lion prides typically consist of four to six adults, although pride size can vary considerably, ranging from just a few individuals to over 30 (Schaller 1972; Stander 1991). In Gorongosa National Park, average pride size consisted of 2.4 adult females, and coalitions largely comprised of two males (Bouley et al. 2018), while in Limpopo National Park, average pride size was 3.25–4.75 (Everatt et al. 2019). Despite their cohesion, prides often split into smaller units while hunting, sometimes for extended periods (Smuts 1976). Being the most gregarious, Lions naturally occur at higher densities compared to other felid species and their densities are positively correlated with prey biomass (Celesia et al. 2009). This explains the spectrum of density estimates ranging from 1.5 Lions/100 km2 in arid environments with low prey biomass to 55 Lions/100 km2 in mesic environments with high prey biomass (Sunquist and Sunquist 2002). In Mozambique, Lions occur at <1 Lion/100 km2 in Limpopo National Park (Everatt et al. 2019), 1–3 Lions/100 km2 in Niassa and the Zambezi Delta (Briers-Louw et al. 2024b; Niassa Carnivore Programme 2023), and >7 Lions/100 km2 in Gorongosa National Park (Bouley et al. 2018; M. Ângela, Pers Comm. 2025). Lions occupy home ranges that vary greatly in size across Africa. For instance, in arid Etosha National Park in Namibia, home ranges can extend over 2,000 km2 (Stander 1991), while in the mesic, prey-rich Ngorongoro Crater in Tanzania, ranges may span just 45 km2 (Hanby et al. 1995). Even within regions there may be considerable variation in home range size. For example, in the Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park across South Africa and Botswana, Lion home ranges varied between 266–4,532 km2 (Funston 2001), while in the Serengeti, home ranges ranged from 30–400 km2 (Schaller 1972). In Mozambique, data from Gorongosa National Park indicate mean home ranges of 52 km2 for females and 124 km2 for males (Bouley et al. 2018).

Threats and conservation measures listed

Threats listed in assessment

Lions face a broad range of threats across the African continent. Ongoing habitat loss and transformation is a particularly widespread issue, and has resulted in the reduction and isolation of various subpopulations (Riggio et al. 2013). Bushmeat poaching is another ubiquitous threat, which is resulting in continued prey base depletions and direct mortality of Lions through bycatch snaring (Lindsey et al. 2013b). Human-lion conflict and the retaliatory or pre-emptive killing of Lion to protect human life or livestock has caused local population declines (Frank et al. 2006). Similarly, while trophy hunting generally has a net positive effect in some conservation landscapes, this practice may have occasionally contributed towards local population declines in several countries, including Botswana, Namibia, Tanzania, Zimbabwe (Packer et al. 2009, 2011, 2013), Cameroon (Croes et al. 2011) and Zambia (Rosenblatt et al. 2014). Recently, targeted poaching for Lion parts has emerged as a significant threat to the species (Almeida et al. 2025; Everatt et al. 2019), with incidences of Lion mortality both as a result of bycatch snaring and targeted poaching increasing across the species range, affecting core subpopulations such as the Greater Limpopo Transfrontier Conservation Area, Niassa Special Reserve, Waza National Park, and WAP Complex (African Lion Database, unpub. data. 2023). Furthermore, while violent extremism/warfare has affected Lion populations in the past (Chardonnet et al. 2009), there appears to be a reemergence of this threat in certain parts of the species range (Lhoest et al. 2022), including recent insurgencies into Niassa Special Reserve in northern Mozambique. In the last five years, violent groups have forced conservation teams, park management and villages within the reserve to flee the reserve, with the latest attack by ISIS groups in April 2025 resulting in the death of more than 10 people (Johnson 2025). Other threats: Climate change is predicted to have a negative impact on Lions, such as the range contraction of tsetse flies and trypanosomiasis in East Africa (including Mozambique) likely releasing cattle from disease control limitations and increasing conflict (Carter et al. 2018). Disease has also been a threat to Lion subpopulations, particularly those that are small, isolated and exposed to inbreeding depression (Munson et al. 2008; Trinkel et al. 2011), which is relevant for a portion of Mozambican Lion subpopulations. African protected areas with Lions are significantly underfunded, and require an estimated $1,000–$2,000/km2 annually to effectively conserve Lions (Lindsey et al. 2018). In Mozambique, the only protected area currently receiving this level of funding is Gorongosa National Park (Pringle 2017), while all other protected areas fall well below this threshold. Human-lion conflict: Human-lion conflict can incur significant economic costs, and consequently, Lions are intensely persecuted across African rangelands (Muriuki et al. 2017; Patterson et al. 2004). In Mozambique, incidences of livestock depredations by Lions occur predominantly in the south (particularly around the Greater Limpopo Transfrontier Conservation Area), while most Lion attacks on people occur in the north (Dunham et al. 2010). The presence of tsetse flies and trypanosomiasis in large parts of the country largely restricts production of large livestock like cattle, and thus conflict with humans (Carter et al. 2018; Niassa Carnivore Programme 2023). In Niassa Special Reserve, livestock depredation and attacks on people remains low and stable, considering the large Lion and human population sizes (Niassa Carnivore Programme 2023). Between 2010 and 2023, retaliatory killings accounted for 13% of anthropogenic Lion mortalities in the country, with the majority occurring in the southern region (Almeida et al. 2025). More specifically, in and around Limpopo and Banhine National Parks, retaliatory killing accounted for 51% of total Lion mortalities (Everatt et al. 2019). That persecution can lead to local population declines is evidenced from Banhine National Park, where five Lions from two resident prides were killed in retaliation following a single livestock conflict incident (Everatt et al. 2019). Of particular concern is the use of poison as a retaliatory method towards Lions, which has noticeably increased since 2013, resulting in 61% of mortalities in the southern region (Everatt et al. 2019), with its increased use also recorded in Niassa (Niassa Carnivore Programme 2023). Whether they are targeted or not, Lions are particularly susceptible to carcasses poisoned to eliminate predators due to their scavenging behaviour. There are however several methods to help alleviate human-lion conflict, including the implementation of appropriate livestock management practices, compensation schemes (Hazzah et al. 2014), and ‘problem’ animal control strategies (Briers-Louw et al. 2025 in Review), although these are context-specific and may vary in effectiveness. Prey depletion: Depletions in prey base can have a direct impact on Lions as their population density is strongly correlated with prey biomass (Ogutu and Dublin 2004; Vinks et al. 2021). In fact, regional Lion population trends closely mirror those of prey populations, with similar declines in West and East Africa, and increases in Southern Africa (Bauer et al. 2015; Craigie et al. 2010). In Mozambique, Lion and prey populations are both widely regarded as being suppressed in many conservation areas following the impacts of the civil war, and subsequent bushmeat poaching (Lindsey et al. 2017). Most notably, prey populations in Limpopo National Park are largely threatened by subsistence and commercial poaching, while illegal/contested pastoralism inside the park further limits the potential recovery of Lions and their prey (Everatt et al. 2014; Roque et al. 2022). Additionally, given the propensity for Lions to shift towards livestock killing when wild prey is reduced below minimum thresholds (Khorozyan et al. 2015), low prey densities may thus exacerbate human-lion conflict and undermine conservation efforts. Similarly, prey densities in the Tchuma Tchato Community Programme remain low (Jacobson et al. 2013). Despite this, prey populations have recovered dramatically in central Mozambique following post-war stability, increased investment and effective management. In Gorongosa National Park and the Zambezi Delta, estimated population sizes of medium- to large-bodied ungulates are generally approaching ecological carrying capacity (Macandza et al. 2024; Stalmans et al. 2019), again with corresponding Lion population increases in these conservation areas (Almeida et al. 2025; Bouley et al. 2018; Briers-Louw et al. 2024b). Nevertheless, prey base depletion remains an important threat to Lions, given the ubiquity of bushmeat poaching, coupled with pastoralism and habitat loss/transformation across the country. Bycatch snaring: Wire-snare bushmeat poaching is a pervasive threat to Lions across their range (Becker et al. 2024). This threat is both cryptic in nature (making it difficult to quantify) and indiscriminate leading to devastating impacts on Lion populations and in some cases, local extirpation (Loveridge et al. 2020). Snares are typically set to obtain bushmeat, and while Lions are seldom the intended targeted, their frequent use of game trails and waterholes, where poachers set traps for other species, often results in their inadvertent ensnaring (Becker et al. 2024). Bycatch snaring of Lions is prevalent in Mozambique, accounting for approximately 27% of all anthropogenically-driven Lion mortalities between 2010 and 2023 (Almeida et al. 2025). Wire snares are most commonly used, although in the central region they are used in combination with steel gin traps (Almeida et al. 2025; Bouley et al. 2018; Lindsey et al. 2013b). In Gorongosa National Park, 26% of monitored Lions were captured in snares between 2012–2016, while 16% suffered snaring-related mortalities (Bouley et al. 2018). Targeted poaching for body parts: The illegal trade and use of Lion bones and body parts for traditional medicine is not a contemporary threat, having occurred to some extent historically. However, this threat has intensified in recent years, emerging in several countries across the species range (Almeida et al. 2025; Coals et al. 2020; Everatt et al. 2019; Williams et al. 2017). More information on this threat can be found under the Use and Trade section above. Trophy/sport hunting: Trophy hunting is practiced in various sub-Saharan countries and forms an integral part of conservation management, generating essential financial support for Lion conservation, governments and local communities (Lindsey et al. 2012). However, when poorly regulated and conducted at unsustainable levels, trophy hunting can negatively affect Lion demographics and even cause population declines (Whitman et al. 2004). More information on this threat can be found under the Use and Trade section above. Warfare and violent extremism: Warfare has occurred in 70% of African protected areas, often leading to severe environmental impacts (Daskin and Pringle 2018; Lhoest et al. 2022). Meanwhile, several protected areas within Lion range are threatened by violent extremism (rebel groups or violent organizations), resulting in unsafe areas which may present significant challenges to protected area management and the conservation of Lions. In Mozambique, Lions and their prey were severely impacted by decades of armed and political conflict during the Mozambican Civil War (1977–1992). For instance, the species was reduced to less than 60 individuals in Gorongosa National Park (Bouley et al. 2018; Chardonnet et al. 2009), and became functionally extirpated from several conservation areas including Coutada 9 (Lindsey and Bento 2012) and the Zambezi Delta (Briers-Louw et al. 2024a). The war’s effect on Lion prey base was also significant, with herbivores declining by 90–95% across the central region (Macandza et al. 2024; Stalmans et al. 2019). Despite post-war stability, there is evidence of violent extremism in the north-east of Mozambique placing pressure on Niassa Special Reserve and compromising the management and conservation of Lions. Furthermore, the ongoing recurrence of political strife often disrupts conservation actions and creates uncertainty around lion monitoring, the consistent enforcement of policy, and investment confidence in conservation management of the region.

Publication

National Red List Assessment

Administração Nacional das Áreas de Conservação (ANAC) and IUCN SSC Cat Specialist Group’s African Lion Database. 2025. National Red List assessment for Panthera leo (Linnaeus, 1758) in Mozambique. Assessed by: Briers-Louw, W., Almeida, J., Jorge, A., Begg, C., Naude, V., Nicholson S. and Manhiça E. Unpublished assessment; Reviewed within the IUCN SSC network 2025.